Can Living Near a Golf Course Increase Parkinson's Disease Risk? (Research Says THIS)
Key insights: 60-second read
- Living near a golf course was associated with higher odds of Parkinson disease - a 2025 case-control study found the strongest associations among people living within 1 to 3 miles.
- The highest adjusted odds were found 1 to 2 miles away - the odds were almost three times those of people living more than 6 miles away.
- Drinking water service areas also mattered - people supplied by groundwater service areas containing a golf course had nearly twice the odds of Parkinson disease compared with those in groundwater service areas without a golf course.
- Groundwater vulnerability was associated with larger differences - particularly in areas with coarse soils, shallow bedrock or karst geology.
- The study does not prove that golf-course pesticides cause Parkinson disease - it identifies an association and possible exposure pathways that deserve further investigation.
Parkinson disease is a progressive neurological condition involving the loss or dysfunction of nerve cells that produce dopamine. Its development is complex, with genetic susceptibility and environmental exposures both thought to play a role.
A 2025 study published in JAMA Network Open investigated whether people living near golf courses had a higher likelihood of developing Parkinson disease. The researchers also examined whether local drinking-water systems and groundwater vulnerability might help explain any association.
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Pesticides and Parkinson disease: What is the connection?
Parkinson disease affects the nervous system, particularly the brain cells involved in producing dopamine. Dopamine is an important chemical messenger involved in controlling movement, coordination and other functions.
Although the exact causes of Parkinson disease are not fully understood, the study mentioned notable associations between certain environmental exposures and increased risk - more specifically, pesticides.
The important distinction is that evidence linking some pesticides to Parkinson disease does not automatically mean that living near a place where pesticides are used will increase someone's risk. The actual exposure, dose, duration and route of exposure all matter.
Golf courses provide an interesting setting to investigate this question because they are managed landscapes where pesticides may be applied regularly. The study suggests that in the United States, pesticide application rates on golf courses have been reported to be substantially higher than in some European countries.
They explain that there is also evidence from separate groundwater research that pesticides applied to golf courses can leach into surrounding groundwater. This raises the possibility of exposure through drinking water, although the extent of contamination will depend on local conditions and water management.
How was the study conducted?
Researchers compared people diagnosed with Parkinson's disease with people from the same community who did not have the condition, using medical records from the Rochester Epidemiology Project in the United States.
The researchers investigated whether living closer to a golf course was associated with a higher likelihood of Parkinson disease. They also examined local water-service areas, groundwater vulnerability and the location of municipal wells.
Study details
- Participants: 419 people with newly identified Parkinson disease and 5,113 control participants.
- Study period: Cases and controls were identified using data from 1991 to 2015.
- Location: A 27-county region covering southern Minnesota and western Wisconsin, spanning approximately 16,119 square miles.
- Golf courses: Researchers assessed proximity to 139 golf courses in the study region.
- Exposure assessment: The distance between participants' residential addresses and the nearest golf course was calculated.
- Water analysis: Researchers assessed whether people lived in groundwater service areas containing golf courses and whether those areas had vulnerable groundwater.
- Statistical analysis: Researchers used statistical methods to compare the groups, while taking into account differences such as age, population characteristics and where people lived.
An important strength was that Parkinson disease diagnoses were reviewed by a movement disorder specialist rather than relying solely on diagnostic codes. The researchers also used residential address histories to estimate how close participants lived to a golf course before the onset of motor symptoms.
The researchers compared people living at different distances from golf courses, using those living more than 6 miles away as the reference group. They then examined whether water supply and groundwater vulnerability were associated with differences in Parkinson disease odds.
What did the study find?
Living near a golf course was associated with higher odds of Parkinson disease
The researchers found an association between residential proximity to a golf course and Parkinson disease. The highest adjusted odds were observed among people living 1 to 2 miles from a golf course.
Compared with people living more than 6 miles away, those living within 1 mile had 126% higher adjusted odds of Parkinson disease. The strongest association was in the 1-to-2-mile group, where the adjusted odds were almost three times higher.
Adjusted odds of Parkinson disease by distance
Compared with people living more than 6 miles from a golf course.
| Distance | Adjusted odds ratio | 95% confidence interval |
|---|---|---|
| More than 6 miles | 1.00 | Reference |
| Within 1 mile | 2.26 | 1.09-4.70 |
| 1 to 2 miles | 2.98 | 1.46-6.06 |
| 2 to 3 miles | 2.21 | 1.06-4.59 |
| 3 to 6 miles | 1.92 | 0.91-4.04 |
These figures are from the model adjusted for demographic and regional characteristics. The 3-to-6-mile estimate was not statistically significant because its confidence interval included 1.00.
It is worth being precise about what these figures mean. An adjusted odds ratio of 2.98 does not mean that 2.98 times as many people will develop Parkinson disease, nor does it mean that an individual's absolute risk has tripled. It means that the odds observed in that group were almost three times those in the reference group after statistical adjustment.
The relationship with distance was not straightforward
The researchers also analysed distance as a continuous measurement rather than simply dividing participants into distance categories. This produced an important additional finding.
In their analysis, the odds of Parkinson disease did not show a clear change with each additional mile among people living within 3 miles of a golf course. Beyond 3 miles, each additional mile of distance was associated with approximately 13% lower odds.
This is why it would be misleading to suggest that the risk steadily increases the closer someone gets to a golf course. The categorical results showed elevated odds across several distance groups, but the continuous analysis suggested a more complicated relationship.
Drinking-water service areas and groundwater vulnerability
One of the most interesting parts of the research was the analysis of drinking-water service areas. The researchers found that people receiving tap water from groundwater service areas containing a golf course had nearly twice the odds of Parkinson disease compared with people in groundwater service areas without a golf course.
The adjusted odds ratio was 1.96. This represents an association between the characteristics of the water service area and Parkinson disease. Importantly, it does not gaurantee that the drinking water was contaminated or that participants consumed a particular pesticide.
The researchers also considered groundwater vulnerability. Areas with coarse-textured soils, shallow bedrock or karst geology can be more susceptible to contaminants moving through the ground and reaching groundwater supplies.
Among people in water service areas containing a golf course, those in vulnerable groundwater regions had 82% higher adjusted odds of Parkinson disease than those in nonvulnerable groundwater regions.
Key finding: The associations were strongest in certain groundwater service areas containing golf courses, particularly where groundwater was considered vulnerable. This supports further investigation into drinking-water contamination as a possible exposure pathway, but does not prove that contamination caused the observed differences.
How might pesticides from golf courses reach nearby residents?
The study did not directly measure pesticide exposure in individual participants. However, we can use these findings to raise two possible pathways that may warrant further investigation.
1. Groundwater and drinking water
Pesticides applied to golf courses can potentially move through soil and enter groundwater. If groundwater is used as a drinking-water source, contamination could provide a route of exposure for people connected to that supply.
The study's findings involving groundwater vulnerability make this possibility particularly interesting. However, the researchers did not measure pesticide concentrations in the drinking water consumed by each participant. The water-service-area analysis was an indirect way of examining a possible exposure pathway.
2. Airborne pesticide exposure
Another possibility is that pesticides may become airborne during or after application. Depending on the chemical, weather conditions and application method, nearby residents could potentially be exposed through spray drift or other forms of airborne movement.
The authors suggested that airborne exposure might help explain some of their findings, particularly because associations remained in certain analyses after accounting for groundwater vulnerability. However, airborne pesticide exposure was not directly measured in this study either.
The researchers' findings raise the possibility that both drinking-water contamination and airborne pesticide exposure may contribute to the association between living near golf courses and Parkinson disease. These may be plausible explanations, but more specifc research will be needed to flesh these ideas out.
Limitations of the research
Although the study provides some interesting findings, there are several limitations worth considering before concluding.
- Observational design: A case-control study can identify associations, but it cannot establish that living near a golf course or exposure to pesticides caused Parkinson disease.
- Limited geographical area: The research was conducted in a particular region of Minnesota and Wisconsin. The findings may not apply to communities with different environmental conditions, pesticide practices or water systems.
- Predominantly White population: The study population was predominantly White, which may limit how well the findings generalise to other populations.
- No occupational exposure history: The researchers did not have complete information about participants' work-related pesticide exposure or the amount of time they spent away from home.
- Other risk factors were not fully accounted for: Factors such as head trauma and genetic predisposition were not included in the analysis.
- Distance was a proxy for exposure: Living near a golf course does not tell us which pesticides were used, how often they were applied, or how much exposure an individual received.
- Limited historical exposure information: Parkinson disease can have a long period of development before symptoms become apparent. The researchers used available golf course location information and residential histories, but could not reconstruct every participant's lifetime exposure.
- No individual water or air measurements: The study assessed water-service areas and groundwater vulnerability, rather than directly measuring pesticide exposure in each participant's drinking water or surrounding air.
One particularly important point is that the study cannot tell us what distance from a golf course is potential safe or unsafe. The reference group was people living more than 6 miles away, but that does not establish that living beyond 6 miles eliminates exposure or risk.
The bigger picture
This 2025 study provides evidence of an association between living near a golf course and higher odds of Parkinson disease. The strongest categorical association was found among people living 1 to 2 miles away, while the water-service-area analysis raised further questions about groundwater vulnerability and potential pesticide exposure.
What makes this research particularly interesting is that it looks beyond individual pesticide exposure and considers how the surrounding environment, drinking-water infrastructure and local geology might influence potential exposure.
However, the researchers did not directly measure pesticide exposure in participants, and the limitations of study type cannot prove that pesticides from golf courses caused Parkinson disease. Further research is needed to establish the chemicals involved, the routes of exposure, and whether reducing those exposures changes disease risk.
I think the important takeaway is that environmental exposures deserve careful consideration when investigating complex conditions such as Parkinson disease. This is an interesting piece of research, but it is a reason to ask better questions and investigate further, rather than a reason to panic if you live near a golf course.
- Grant
Frequently asked questions
Does living near a golf course increase the risk of Parkinson disease?
A 2025 case-control study found an association between living near a golf course and higher odds of Parkinson disease. The strongest association was found among people living 1 to 2 miles away. However, the study does not prove that living near a golf course causes Parkinson disease.
How far away from a golf course should you live?
The study found higher odds of Parkinson disease in several distance categories compared with people living more than 6 miles away. However, it did not establish a safe distance, and living more than 6 miles away does not guarantee zero exposure or risk.
Can pesticides from golf courses contaminate drinking water?
Pesticides can potentially move through soil and enter groundwater. The study found associations involving groundwater service areas containing golf courses, particularly in vulnerable groundwater regions. However, it did not directly measure pesticide concentrations in participants' drinking water.
Should I test my water if I live near a golf course?
Living near a golf course does not automatically mean your water is contaminated. If you rely on a private groundwater well or have a specific concern about local contamination, discuss appropriate testing with an accredited laboratory or relevant water authority.
What makes groundwater vulnerable to pesticide contamination?
Coarse-textured soils, shallow bedrock and karst geology can allow contaminants to move more easily through the ground. These characteristics can increase the vulnerability of groundwater supplies to contamination.
Does this research prove that pesticides cause Parkinson disease?
No. The research found an association between residential proximity to golf courses and Parkinson disease. It did not directly measure individual pesticide exposure or establish that pesticides caused the condition.
One key insight from this research
A 2025 case-control study found that living near a golf course was associated with higher odds of Parkinson disease, with the strongest association in people living 1 to 2 miles away. Groundwater vulnerability and water-service-area characteristics were also associated with differences in odds, raising important questions about potential environmental exposure pathways. The study does not prove causation.
Reference
Krzyzanowski B, Mullan AF, Dorsey ER, et al. (2025). Proximity to Golf Courses and Risk of Parkinson Disease. JAMA Network Open. 2025;8(5):e259198. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2025.9198
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